清朝职官制中的满汉差异问题研究

发布时间：2018-04-08 14:32

本文选题：清朝　切入点：职官制　出处：《南开大学》2009年博士论文

【摘要】： 清朝作为少数民族入主中原的王朝,既要保障本民族的主体统治,又要联合汉族官绅,以实现有效治理。如何处理政权内部的满汉关系,以及如何定位各自在清朝政治生活中的地位,是不可回避的政治问题。职官制度作为规范官员行为准则、明确行政权力与义务的纲领性规定,能够较为直接的反映出统治者的治国理念,以及在上述问题上所做的权衡。这一重大问题的有些方面,已得到学界的关注。但由于清朝职官制度的具体规定细致而又繁杂,对于很多问题,学界尚处于笼统、模糊认识的层面。故本文主要是从清入关前的官制,入关后的中央官缺制、地方职官配置、品级制与爵制、俸禄制、职官礼制以及清末对满汉职官差异的改革几个方面,以考证为基本的研究方法,将制度层面上的行政规定与政策实际运行过程和效果相结合,力图系统揭示职官制中满汉差异的具体表现,深入剖析形成这些现象的政治的、社会的、文化传统的,或者个人的、偶然的影响因素。清入关前,征服战争尚如火如荼,戎马倥偬。加之政权初创,满洲统治者所制定的职官制度是不成熟且不完善的。尽管如此,满汉职官在统治者的意识中已有区别,政治地位上之畛域亦已萌生。努尔哈赤时期所实行的单一的满洲政权,不仅排斥汉人进入上层统治集团,而且还对汉官多有歧视与欺辱。皇太极即位后,调整民族政策,其对汉官的态度也由排斥转为吸纳。但汉官在行政机构中仍处于从属地位,权力十分有限,内外军政大权仍由满洲显贵把持。清入关后,仿明制完善中央行政机构,并延用明朝的官缺制度。与明朝不同的是,清朝的“官缺”包含官位的编制额数与性质类别两层含义。就后者而言,官缺按被授予人的民族与身份的不同而划分的类型是被重点探讨的对象。本文将清朝中央衙门按其职能性质的异同,划分为八种不同的类型,并以此为单位,考实中央各职官旗人专缺与汉官缺在设缺时间、官缺额数以及变化趋势上的差异,并在此过程中对清朝政书中相关记载有误之处加以考证、勘补。在此基础上,揭示满汉官缺因具体衙署、职务的职能性质各异而在配备上呈现出的倾向性。复职官缺中,满汉缺在设置时间上的不同,不仅说明满汉复职制是一个渐进的形成过程,而且亦显示着满汉官对本衙门行政权力掌控上的主次之分;单职官缺,满汉官占缺比例上的差别,则反映了该官职在清朝政治生活中的重要程度。而官缺作为清王朝人事上的组织原则与实现形式,其变化不仅仅是简单的数量和民族属性的转换,实质上体现的是行政权力在不同民族属性官员间的分配与调置。所以,从创建伊始到乾隆十三年基本定形,中央各官缺额数与性质不断增衍、转换的调整过程,不仅是清朝典章制度不断走向完善和稳定的标志,而且也预示着中央权力格局的形成。清朝地方官缺,在设置上有异于中央衙门。从官缺配额上说,并非复职;从官缺民族属性上说,则分为满汉互用之缺与满蒙旗人专补之缺。这一设缺原则,客观上顺应了地方任官灵活性的政治需要。本文在兼顾地方治理上“以汉治汉”的普遍性原则的同时,重点阐释在这一普遍性之中所蕴含的特殊性,即在旗汉杂居区、少数民族聚居区、毗邻少数民族之边疆地区、直省税关等优肥之缺的选任上首崇满官。这一任官趋势是清朝统治民族意识的反映,同时亦符合地方行政管理过程中的客观政治需要。在职官品级制与爵制中,满官不仅在封爵上优于汉官,而且在其品级初制的规定上亦高出汉官一等至三等有差。品级是官员政治地位高低的表现形式之一,并以官缺作为其存在载体。本文即以中央衙门官缺设置时间为基本依据,考实满汉职官品级之初制。并在此前提下,分别以顺治二年至顺治十五年、康熙六年至康熙九年为时间背景,揭示在这两个历史阶段中满汉职官品级在正从、高低上的差别,因品级变化而引起的职官称谓的变更、升转次序的调整,以及清朝统治者在划一满汉职官品级过程中所遵循的原则。俸禄制中满汉职官的差异,不仅表现在各自俸禄制度确立的时间不同,而且在俸禄额数以及支付形式上亦存在区别。关于清朝职官礼制中满汉畛域的阐释,本文主要以丁忧制、朝仪制以及臣下对皇帝的自称为主要的探讨对象。在丁忧制中,满汉职官在丁忧期限以及丁忧期间的俸禄待遇上各有定制;在朝仪制中,满汉职官不仅在常朝仪式中程序各异,而且朝会班次、上下级间的见面礼亦满汉有别;在臣下对皇帝的自称上,满汉官则有“奴才”与“臣”的区别。从本质上说,职官礼制中的满汉差异,是由民族属性的根本不同所决定的。十九世纪末二十世纪初,清朝的职官制度受到了新的政治理念的强烈冲击。清朝统治者为稳定统治,开始尝试消除职官制中所存在的满汉畛域,并主要表现在以下几个方面:一是在部分中央衙署取消满汉分缺;二是在地方上逐渐取消满蒙旗人专任之缺;三是在礼制上,对满汉职官丁忧制度进行划一与整合、统一满汉职官在皇帝面前之自称。但是,清朝统治者的这些消除畛域的行为是有所保留的,所以它并没有抵挡住革命浪潮的冲击,最终在1912年走向了结局。综上所述,清朝职官制度中的满汉畛域,是满族统治者实行满汉联合的统治模式而必然产生的政治现象。这一方面是由各民族在清政权内部所占据的政治地位决定的,另一方面亦反映了统治者在具体政策操作过程中的客观需要。此外,满族统治者的民族意识,亦是形成职官制中满汉差异的主观因素。清朝统治者在对满汉民族属性及其相应政治适宜性正确认识的前提下,一方面强调满官的主导地位,另一方面兼顾汉官政治效用的发挥。这是清朝较其它少数民族王朝统治更为成功的关键所在。客观地说,清朝统治者对满汉职官不同的政治定位,在清朝的发展进程中,起到了特殊的历史作用。但是,由于职官制中的满汉畛域,更多的表现为满汉职官在政治上的不平等现象,所以不可避免的对清朝政治造成一定的负面影响,降低了整个官僚机构的行政效能。这种制度上的民族畛域,亦对汉官的为政心态造成了一定的影响。但在外敌入侵的特殊形势下,整个中华民族之大义最终成为清朝满汉官员共同的选择!
[Abstract]:The Qing Dynasty as a minority for the Central Plains Dynasty, not only to protect the nation's main rule, and combined to realize the effective governance of Han gentry,. How to deal with the internal relationship between the Han regime, and how to locate their position in the political life in Qing Dynasty, is a political problem that can not be avoided. As the official system specification official code of conduct clear programmatic provisions of administrative power and duty, can more directly reflect the rulers of the ruling idea, and the balance in the above mentioned problems. Some of the major issues, has been the concern of the academia. But due to the specific provisions of official system of the Qing Dynasty meticulous and complicated, for many problems, academic circles still in general, vague understanding level. So this article is mainly from the Qing Dynasty official system, after entering the central, local official system, configuration, grade and rank system, salary system, position The official ritual and the differences of Manchu official reform several aspects, basic research methods to research, the administrative provisions on the system level and the actual operation of the process and effect of policy combination, tries to reveal the specific performance system for differences in the official, in-depth analysis of formation of these phenomena of politics, society, culture the traditional, or personal factors, accidental effect.
Before 1644, conquest is like a raging fire. In addition, busily engaged in warfare to develop power start-up, ruler of Manchuria's official system is immature and imperfect. Nevertheless, the Manchu and the Han officials in the consciousness of the rulers in difference, political status of the field has sprouted. Nur Hachi during the single Manchuria regime, not only excluded Han Chinese into the ruling group, but also for many Chinese officials. Discrimination and bullying Huangtaiji ascended the throne after the adjustment of the national policy, the attitude towards the Han nationality by the rejection to absorb. But Chinese officials in administrative institutions is still in a subordinate position, power is very limited, and military and political power by the Manchuria social control.
After 1644, imitation Ming Dynasty and improve the central administrative institutions, and the extension of the Ming Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. The lack of official system is different, the Qing Dynasty "," the categories and properties of compilation of official volume contains two meanings. On the latter, officer by the grant and identity of the different nationalities and the divided is the type of object is discussed. The Qing Dynasty Central Government according to the similarities and differences between the functions of the nature, are divided into eight types, and as a unit, the real examination of the central government and Chinese officials lack of lack of special banner in a short of time, the official number of vacancies and changing trend of the difference, and in the process the related records in the Qing Dynasty Zhengshu mistakes to research, exploration and repair. On this basis, the lack of official revealed due to the specific orientation of different functions of the government office, and in the nature of duty with presents. The lack of official complex, the lack in the setting of different time, not only That man's system is a gradual process of formation, but also shows the man on the bureaucratic administrative power control officer on the primary and secondary; lack of official single, accounted for the proportion of the official lack of difference, reflects the importance of the official in the Qing Dynasty in the political life. However, as with the realization form the Qing Dynasty the personnel organization principle, the change is not just a simple number and national attribute conversion, essentially reflects the distribution of administrative power in different national officials and setting attributes. So, from the beginning to thirteen years of Qianlong basic shape, number and nature of the central vacancy increasing officer Yan, the adjustment of the conversion process, not only is the system of the Qing Dynasty to sign and perfect and stable, but also indicates that the formation of the central power structure.
Local officials lack in the setting of the Qing Dynasty, is different from the central government. Officials from the lack of quota that is missing from the official national reinstatement; property that is divided into Manchuria and lack of interoperability of Manchu bannermen. Special supplement. This lack of design principles, conform to the objective of local officials of the political need flexibility at the same time. In this paper, the principle of universality of both local governance "to treat Han Han", the special emphasis contained in this universality of the flag in Han inhabited areas and areas inhabited by ethnic minorities, ethnic minorities in border areas adjacent to the province, the advantages of the direct election as lack of fertilizer the first full official. This Chong Ren Guan trend is a reflection of the national consciousness of the rule of the Qing Dynasty, it is consistent with the local administration in the process of objective political needs.
In the official grade system and full rank system, not only in the superior officer investitive Han Guan, and in the provisions on the initial grade is higher than the Han officials and three have a poor grade. Is one of the forms of official political status, and the lack of official as its carrier. This article is to the central government, set the time as the basis, the real test system. At the beginning of Han official grade and under this premise, respectively in Shunzhi two years to Shunzhi fifteen years, Kangxi Kangxi six years to nine years as the time background, revealed in these two stages in the Manchu and the Han officials from grade level, the difference the official title, caused by the change of grade change up to the order of adjustment, and the principle of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty followed in a man. In the process of official grade differences in the salary system is not only reflected in the Manchu and the Han officials, establish their salary system of the time is not the same, but also in the The difference also exists in the form of payment volume and salary.
About the Qing Dynasty official etiquette in Manchu conflict interpretation, this paper mainly Dingyou system, toward the instrument to the emperor and ministers claimed as the main research object. The Dingyou system in Han period and in official Dingyou treatment of salary during the Dingyou has the custom; in instrument system, not only in the Manchu and the Han officials at the ceremony the program is different, but at the frequency between the upper and lower levels of the gift also differs in Manchu; liegeman to the Emperor himself, "I have the difference," and "I". In essence, the difference in the official ritual, is decided by the fundamental attribute of nation is different.
At the end of nineteenth Century and early twentieth Century, the Qing Dynasty official system by the strong impact of new political ideas. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty stable rule, began to try to eliminate the existing official system of Manchu conflict, and mainly in the following aspects: one is in the central part of Yashu cancel man Han missing; two is cancelled gradually Manmeng banner full-time the lack of local; three is in the ritual, alignment and integration of the official Dingyou system, a unified official in front of the emperor's claim. However, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty the elimination of the boundary behavior is retained, so it does not resist the impact of the wave of revolution, eventually ending in 1912.
To sum up, the official system of the Qing Dynasty Manchu conflict, is a political phenomenon of Manchu rulers adopted Han joint governance model inevitable. This is decided by each nation occupied in the Qing regime within the political status, but also reflected the objective needs of the rulers in the specific operation policy. In addition, the Manchu rulers of the national consciousness, is also the subjective factors in the formation of official differences. In Manchu rulers of the Qing Dynasty based on the correct understanding of the Han nationality attribute and its corresponding political suitability, highlight the dominant position of the official full hand, taking into account the political effectiveness of the Han officials. On the other hand, this is the Qing Dynasty dynasty than other ethnic minorities the rule is more the key to success. Objectively speaking, the political position of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty to Han official, in the development process of the Qing Dynasty, played a special history for . however, because of the official system in Manchu ranges, more performance for the official political inequality, so inevitably have a negative impact on the politics, reduces the administrative efficiency of the entire bureaucracy. This system of national boundaries, but also to Chinese officials' political mentality caused some effects. But in the special situation of foreign invasion, the whole nation of Dayi eventually become the common choice of the Qing Dynasty Manchu officials!

【学位授予单位】：南开大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2009
【分类号】：K249

【引证文献】